Is your musical preference towards simplicity or complexity?
Before we examine the types of listeners the following chart outlines what makes music (and art) complex or simple, the left side details the issue of tolerance and the right the elements that define levels of complexity.
What kind of listener are you?
This is not one of those multiple choice articles that you find
online and in magazines, the intention of the blog is to explore why human
beings adopt different attitudes towards music, how psychologists define musical
personalities, why certain aspects of music appeal to some and deter others and explore what part
our first exposure to music plays in the development of musical personality. For the
composer and performer understanding the types can be particularly useful in
the planning stage and in anticipating the needs of and expectations of an
audience.
I am going to begin with a universally accepted fact amongst listeners, music is
communication and if it fails to engage, even for a moment, it will not reach
out to audiences. Though human beings have a limited attention span nothing
draws renewed focus on a piece of music than a fault. Having said what we
intuitively understand let us move to something a little more obscure, how
psychological profiles determine musical preferences. The bold print titles in
the table below indicate the four types of listener, the genres of music appealing to each musical type is wide. The
table offers a few examples:
Reflective & Complex:
Art music
|
Renaissance
|
Baroque
|
Classical
|
Contemporary classical
|
Jazz (post 50’s)
|
Blues
|
Folk
|
Intense & Rebellious:
Heavy Metal
|
Rock
|
Progressive
|
|
Upbeat & Conventional:
Pop
|
Film track
|
Gospel/Religious
|
Country
|
Energetic & Rhythmic:
Dance
|
Funk
|
Reggae
|
Electronica
|
Psychologists add to the mix three personality traits which glue
the person and the music together, openness to experience, conscientiousness
and extraversion (defined by Costa &
McCrae 1992), they are as
follows:
Openness to Experience: refers to active imagination,
aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, and preference for
variety, intellectual curiosity and independence of judgement.
Conscientiousness: denotes strong will,
determination and purpose.
Extraversion: refers to Sociability, liking
for people and large gatherings, assertiveness.
This blog will focus on
the two personality traits which most directly concern practicing musicians.
Openness to experience and extraversion. The former classification is the one with
which contemporary classical musicians would identify most readily. It is also
a powerful influence on other styles in which complexity plays a part such as
modern jazz and some types of electronica. Don't confuse openness with
universal stylistic acceptance, (consider for example comments made by Jonathan
Harvey in a BBC interview where he singled out his feeling of repulsion with
repetition in popular music).
One significant feature
discovered from studying openness amongst individuals is that those with a
low level of openness (listeners who gravitate to a specific style) like to
have the same music repeated while those high in openness preferred a regular
input of new works. Those readers living in the UK might reflect on their
experiences of the output of Radio 3 and compare it to Radio 1 and 2 when it
comes to repeats of music, and then extend that reflection to stations like
Classic FM. (I must add here that I find a determination to uncover novel or
rare works doesn't necessarily improve the quality of a broadcast, nor does
repetition of music with a single style make for a poor programme).
To communicate well with
an audience the composer often provides hooks which offer an additional
opportunity for reflection and comment. Open listeners respond particularly well to such cues. While programme notes and scores may offer visual clues composers are a
little more inventive; in George Crumbs “Voice of the Whale” the use of subdued blue lighting in the auditorium creates a theatrical ambience. In one performance
of “Ludwig Van” by Kagel I saw multiple pages of music pasted around the concert
hall (projectors were in their infancy), the theatrical cues extended to the appearance of Beethoven made up as Frankenstein's creature! “Ludwig Van” is interesting in the
context of this blog in that it has no original music but permits the open
minded listener to engage with familiar complex forms in an unfamiliar context,
thereby extending the degree of openness offered.
In addition to the music being embellished with
analytical information open listeners show a
preference for many themes over a single theme in music, this leads us towards the notion of open listeners gravitating towards music of greater complexity. Taken at face value
this would suggest that a monophonic Haydn movement would rate less highly than
a work with two contrasting themes, but this is to undervalue the degree of
inventiveness and variance provided by the composer. Orchestral light music
makes a virtue of the single theme design.
The second type of
listener is an energetic extrovert and goes under the term psychological term extraversion.
This preference leans towards more conventional harmonic language driven by
dance rhythms. Repetition is welcomed by such listeners and the type of
listening is less focused in that it can just as easily be background music or
music that co-exists with another (usually physical) activity. Such listeners
are content to hear chains of different themes and changes of mood as long as
the music plays faster, repetitive rhythms. The question of pace is
particularly important in recognising the difference between 'open' listeners
and extroverts. In many cultures work songs are still a vital part of daily
life, I referred to the tradition of beating cloth in the Shetlands in a
previous blog, this co-operative venture is one example of the function of
energetic extraversion in society.
Let us move on to the
matter of pace and how it affects the emotional world of those who incline to
“openness”. Such listeners often describe highly intense responses to sad and
slow music, and their descriptions of the music often note sensations of peace,
awe and melancholy. Works with direct cues to emotional response
can be hugely popular, Barber’s “Adagio for Strings” with its readily grasped
composing intentions (dynamics and register) is such an example, and shows us
the role that age, association and place has in developing the response we have,
all of these factors add to our listening preference.
Even though our genetic
makeup directs us towards a preferred listening style each person is an
individual and no definition will work for all listeners. This pull towards belonging to a
group is intensified through education and the society we live in and acts as a
motivating force on the choices made by the composer before a single note of
music is written.
There are studies on
gender differences in approaching music and the alterations in our perception
of music as we age (from cradle to grave). These issues will be of considerable
interest to particular composers but lies outside the range of this particular
blog. Having said that writing for a particular age group as the Who did with
their rock operas demonstrates their inclusion of group identity, gender issues
and sonic preferences with lyrics and music. Understanding the wholeness of
their intention demonstrates an intelligent and emotional understanding of
their audience, all of which plays a part in the huge popularity of their
music. Smashing their equipment on stage can be seen as more than a theatrical
whim when considered in these terms.
If you enjoy listening to complex music are you in an elitist group? I would argue against the notion, belonging to such a group often arises from family preferences,
genetic predisposition, education and social factors, but listening to complex music is a preference which may occur and be developed in all sectors of society and different cultures. Some listeners will experience (and be content) with a limited
stylistic range of music while others will extend their initial experiences by
listening to associated styles and periods. Listeners with specialist and refined experience of music could be described as elitist whether the content is complex or not.
To explore how casual listeners can
be drawn towards listening to complex music we need to consider coincidental and
structured exposure to music.
Coincidental exposure.
Examples of coincidental exposure to music is widespread thanks to
media such as radio, television and film. Takemitsu cites American radio
broadcasts of jazz as significant in the development of his style. As for
television I have lost count of the numbers of teachers who use arrangements of
well-known works popularised by advertising to hook pupils onto performing and
appraising. Film music has become increasingly adventurous in its use of
contemporary sounds including 12 note music and texture driven works.
Any system of collecting and playing music will be shaped by the
experiences of the person selecting the materials and it can be delightful to
have ones knowledge expanded by a well-informed librarian or radio presenter.
Radio 3 the UK serious music radio programme has “Late Junction” as a flagship
of diversity and it is essential listening for loosening the straitjacket we
sometimes climb into of our own accord. Once we integrate the sounds of street
performers, carnival, recordings of natural and industrial sounds there is no
shortage of examples to stir the most important characteristic of all learners,
curiosity.
Structured exposure.
Hearing by design can have positive and negative values, church
attendance will encourage specific types of listening (and performance).
Certain societies value specific instruments and styles of music, in Wales the
harp is highly valued and the combination of recitation and harp, accompaniment
in Cerdd Dant is a highly refined and competitive stylistic medium unlike any
other to my knowledge. One insight into musical education in my experience
arose from listening to an Irish musician who explained that he had learned the
pipes from an early age by watching the movements of his father's hands. It
seems that some of us will have experienced a fair input of music pre-birth and
this may shape our preferences; having being adopted from a very early age into
a non-musical family I sometimes wonder about the nature/nurture argument and
pre-birth experiences.
The effect of cultural identity and our desire to belong to that
group will influence a number of factors, the scales and harmonies and tuning
we prefer, the blues, four part harmonies of hymns, the rhythms of gamelan,
pentatonic scales and so on.
Once the listener is familiar with one style of music there is the
possibility that curiosity will draw the person into new areas of listening,
and it may be that the new areas will exploit degrees of sophistication and be
more demanding in scope, design or intent. Most of the styles of music
mentioned above are sophisticated, (the four part harmonies of hymns), some are
complex (rhythmic organisation of gamelan), and some will appeal to a specific
audience (Cerdd Dant).
As with the use of learning styles in education one must recognize
that age and experience widens the crossover between the categories outlined in
the table at the opening of the blog. A perceptive listener will recognise that
great works of art may cover all the areas identified. For the cynical this
could be seen as a case of hedging composing bets for recognition, for the less
cynical a demonstration of the wide ranging humanity of certain composers. It
may well be that one listener may take initially to the rhythmic play of the
second movement of Beethoven’s Op.110 and another respond to its lyricism while
a third could take to the intellectual contrapuntal writing, given time and
exposure to the music each individual may come to recognising the power of the
interplay between the elements.
When Webern moved from writing in a late romantic style as in “Im Sommerwind” and the “Passacaglia” to the intellectual works like his Piano Variations Op. 27, he lay down a challenge to his original audience, while both
types of music would fit into the reflective/complex category the demands on
the listeners attention are steeper, partly through changes to the time frame,
different approaches to repetition particularly regarding rhythm (a parameter
which permits the sharing of listening categories, so that e.g. Holst’s “Mars”
gets adapted by progressive musicians King Crimson in “The Devil’s Triangle”
off 'In the Wake of Poseidon' ).
For some listeners the advent of more intense and complex music
has been a wonderful opportunity to associate with likeminded musicians, and
for a select few the opportunity to represent that group as its spokesperson.
There is a danger that the identification of modern music with a particular
group leads to distrust, and music (like mathematics) is wrongly labelled “difficult”
and a painful experience to be avoided. Reading regularly made negative
comments about music which is now a century (+) old demonstrates how
powerfully group dynamics can affect our choices.
Experiencing emotional responses from sound and music.
In examining the responses from listening to music one will come across several
psychological accounts regarding our reactions. A psychological
model has been formed to account for our emotional responses, it is given
the memorable title “The BRECVEM model” (Juslin & Västfjäll). A detailed introduction
can be read at:
In order to simplify the classifications I have added in italics possible
responses when listening to the opening pages of Beethoven’s first
symphony. I wouldn't describe these as part of my
internal dialogue, but nevertheless could be forming part of my listening experience.
Brain
Stem Reflex:
The brain receives
a musical signal and considers that a response is required, music is taken at
its basic level of sound input. The orchestra’s forte on the opening chord
surprises me, my attention is drawn to the music.
Evaluative
Conditioning:
Music is
associated with positive or negative feelings. At the Allegro con Brio
(after a pulse acceleration) my sense of excitement and happiness is
intensified by the strong steady downbeats and the spring in the dotted
quaver-semiquaver figure.
Emotional
Contagion:
The listener
identifies with the emotion presented in the music and then simulates the
emotion to “resonate” with it. This “resonance” involves both physiological and
psychological reactions. At bar 52 the oboe theme alters my perception of
the mood of the symphony and through the change increases my sense of
involvement with the music. I feel that the oboe sound perfectly matches my
involvement and my mind wanders a little to reflect on this observation.
Visual
Imagery:
Association of
image (internal or external, real or imagined) with music. The cantabile
tone of the oboe melody and the perky staccato accompaniment associates an
image from a World War I film of a girl singing while deftly moving between her
patients in a hospital ward.
Meyer
(1956), “it seems probable that ...image processes play a role of great
importance in the musical affective experiences of many listeners”
Episodic
memory: Association with personal/social memories,
significant life events. The oboe melody at the point of contagion reminds
me of my friend who played the oboe who died some months ago.
Musical
expectancy:
Prior knowledge of
music creates expectations which are denied, (some psychologists identify this
as creating negative reactions, and I would contest this, to the experienced
listener the denial or surprise factor should be a positive, even humorous
stimulus). After the short three quaver figures at bar 69 I am
expecting the music to start moving to the dominant but the sudden switch of
dynamics and harmony take me by surprise.
Musical
expectancy refers to those expectancies that involve syntactical relationships
between different parts of the musical structure (Narmour 1991; Patel 2003).
Aesthetic
judgement:
Individual
evaluation based on message or meaning, the quality of the composition
(craftsmanship), originality of design etc. From the opening statement
Beethoven has used his knowledge of harmony to keep us in suspense to make the
rhythmic acceleration a striking feature.
Having
these categories to identify what initiates a reaction (emotional or otherwise)
will be of more use to those studying our behaviour than those wanting to
direct their composing skills in a particular direction, but they are
nevertheless categories with which a composer should give some consideration,
they are the bedrock of what bring about an emotional response.
Turning
to the inputs of sound, music and silence, a brave person might introduce the
philosophical question of whether the listener's emotions are contained within the
composition or the person, or shared between both. Why do some pieces of
music create a particular emotive response (joy, sadness, laughter or tears),
or in some cases a succession of responses or even a succession of different
responses on different occasions? It may occur to some readers to enquire if we need to
make a distinction between experiencing a single sound (or succession of sounds) and a planned relationship of sounds experienced in a composition to experience emotional responses. The
question is particularly pertinent after John Cage broke down the conventional
relationship between sound and structured music and recordings and presentations
of sampled music become compositions in their own right.
So,
is the emotion in the music or the listener? One school of thought is that
music emulates characteristics that resemble or suggest human reactions
(alternations of pp and ff, tremolando
strings, string glissando “sighs” come immediately to mind). The process of decoding
such events and developing them into a narrative has already been considered in
the previous blogs on motivation, but it is vital to recognise that some hold
the view that the judgement of the listener is considered not only as vital but
more important than the structure (the composition).
Some
believe that there is a shared function between structure and appraiser.
Process theory responds to the Juslin & Västfjäll table provided above, and suggest that music creates
an immediate response preparing us for action which is felt as emotion. The
number of reactions, and possibly different reactions arising from a piece of
music, may create within us a sense of conflict and even create uncertainty,
what we might commonly describe as a mixed response, so that our emotions
“morph” over a period of time. I can’t think of a better example than Nielsen’s
5th
symphony as a model for this type of reaction.
If
we move out of the field of music for a moment and consider a drawing of a face
as a circle, two dots and a curved line, we know that the result can bring
about a response. The greater the craftsmanship in producing the image the
deeper our involvement and emotional response, so for me the Mona Lisa holds
more interest than a computer emoticon. In one input I can say “that is a happy
face” in the other I have ambiguous feelings about the smile and a number of
other factors in the painting. As a child I might have had different responses
to which image I preferred and this is even more pronounced as an infant.
When listening our emotions are enhanced through a combination of additional factors to the sounds we hear. The notion of structure, e.g. the use of arch form or a set of temporal proportions, may have a bearing on our responses. Are we consciously aware of these additional elements, does one have the structural formation of a poem like Do Not Go Gentle in mind when listening to it being read? Another element is the manner of performance, this includes
areas such as accuracy, virtuosity and then fuzzy considerations such as warmth
of tone and the way a performer gesticulates. Both performers and listeners
will respond to the environment in which the music is played and this may
appreciably enhance or destroy the experience.
We
are now encroaching on Nurtan’s statements that people perceive music through
their own individual characteristics and preferences partly based on
personality and partly based on education. Both of us share the view that like
a well-crafted watch a piece of music must show integrity in its design. To
appreciate why we might like one time-piece over another we might open the case
as well as look at the movement of the hands. Of course Nurtan may own a
timepiece by Masahiro Kikuno based on a
"temporal hour clock", and
I a period piece Micky Mouse watch. That we can appreciate and enjoy these
different objects is of course is a good thing. 2
1.
Nurtan’s comment:
One consideration that is difficult to include as a part of perception
of music and the psychological reaction one might expect is the tuning of the
instruments and the pitch we associate with a given frequency. For example,
there is a significant difference between the modern Western tuning based on
440 A and Baroque turning which may range from a semitone above to a semitone
below 440. There are cultures in which the music is based on Pythagorean tuning
which is very significantly different in perceived sound than well-tempered
scale. There are cultures that use only instruments in which one of the most
important notes in the well-tempered scale, the tonic-fifth relationship does
not exist. It is reasonably well established that we perceive music as a combination
of its components. If one of the components and its perception is based on
cultural considerations then it would be logical to assume that the
interpretation of music is also culturally mediated. I think the essential
rhythms of a language and the sounds of simple songs such as a lullaby are
learned from in utero to the first six months after birth. These are permanent
and form the foundation of music and speech even though at the time of learning
they are not interpreted and can be expanded through "ear training".
These considerations raise many very significant questions in the perception or
interpretation of music, for which cross-cultural data do not exist. However,
we can say with confidence that even among those who cannot differentiate tones
a musical statement elicits a psychological response.
2.
Fortunately or unfortunately Nurtan
owns a very non-descript timepiece that was purchased some 15 years ago to
replace a similar timepiece that was at least 20 years old. Perhaps in five
years he will attain the level intricacy and sophistication required for a
Masahiro Kikuno watch; but, he still will have to find his reading glasses to
tell the time.
